# Adding features

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## Table of contents

-   [Lex](#lex)
-   [Parse](#parse)
    -   [Typed parse node metadata implementation](#typed-parse-node-metadata-implementation)
-   [Check](#check)
    -   [Adding a new SemIR instruction](#adding-a-new-semir-instruction)
    -   [SemIR typed instruction metadata implementation](#semir-typed-instruction-metadata-implementation)
-   [Lower](#lower)
-   [Tests and debugging](#tests-and-debugging)
    -   [Running tests](#running-tests)
    -   [Updating tests](#updating-tests)
        -   [Reviewing test deltas](#reviewing-test-deltas)
    -   [Test patterns](#test-patterns)
        -   [Minimal Core prelude](#minimal-core-prelude)
        -   [SemIR dumps and ranges](#semir-dumps-and-ranges)
            -   [Example uses](#example-uses)
    -   [Debugging errors](#debugging-errors)

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## Lex

New lexed tokens must be added to
[token_kind.def](/toolchain/lex/token_kind.def). `CARBON_SYMBOL_TOKEN` and
`CARBON_KEYWORD_TOKEN` both provide some built-in lexing logic, while
`CARBON_TOKEN` requires custom lexing support.

[TokenizedBuffer::Lex](/toolchain/lex/tokenized_buffer.h) is the main dispatch
for lexing, and calls that need to do custom lexing will be dispatched there.

## Parse

A parser feature will have state transitions that produce new parse nodes.

The resulting parse nodes are in
[parse/node_kind.def](/toolchain/parse/node_kind.def) and
[typed_nodes.h](/toolchain/parse/typed_nodes.h). When choosing node structure,
consider how semantics will process it in post-order; this will rule out some
designs. Adding a parse node kind will also require a handler in the `Check`
step.

The state transitions are in [parse/state.def](/toolchain/parse/state.def). Each
`CARBON_PARSER_STATE` defines a distinct state and has comments for state
transitions. If several states should share handling, name them
`FeatureAsVariant`.

Adding a state requires adding a `Handle<name>` function in an appropriate
`parse/handle_*.cpp` file, possibly a new file. The macros are used to generate
declarations in the header, so only extra helper functions should be added
there. Every state handler pops the state from the stack before any other
processing.

### Typed parse node metadata implementation

As of [#3534](https://github.com/carbon-language/carbon-lang/pull/3534):

![parse](parse.svg)

> TODO: Convert this chart to Mermaid.

-   [common/enum_base.h](/common/enum_base.h) defines the `EnumBase`
    [CRTP](idioms.md#crtp-or-curiously-recurring-template-pattern) class
    extending `Printable` from [common/ostream.h](/common/ostream.h), along with
    `CARBON_ENUM` macros for making enumerations

-   [parse/node_kind.h](/toolchain/parse/node_kind.h) includes
    [common/enum_base.h](/common/enum_base.h) and defines an enumeration
    `NodeKind`, along with bitmask enum `NodeCategory`.

    -   The `NodeKind` enumeration is populated with the list of all parse node
        kinds using [parse/node_kind.def](/toolchain/parse/node_kind.def) (using
        [the .def file idiom](idioms.md#def-files)) _declared_ in this file
        using a macro from [common/enum_base.h](/common/enum_base.h)

    -   `NodeKind` has a member type `NodeKind::Definition` that extends
        `NodeKind` and adds a `NodeCategory` field (and others in the future).

    -   `NodeKind` has a method `Define` for creating a `NodeKind::Definition`
        with the same enumerant value, plus values for the other fields.

    -   `HasKindMember<T>` at the bottom of
        [parse/node_kind.h](/toolchain/parse/node_kind.h) uses
        [field detection](idioms.md#field-detection) to determine if the type
        `T` has a `NodeKind::Definition Kind` static constant member.

        -   Note: both the type and name of these fields must match exactly.

    -   Note that additional information is needed to define the `category()`
        method (and other methods in the future) of `NodeKind`. This information
        comes from the typed parse node definitions in
        [parse/typed_nodes.h](/toolchain/parse/typed_nodes.h) (described below).

-   [parse/node_ids.h](/toolchain/parse/node_ids.h) defines a number of types
    that store a _node id_ that identifies a node in the parse tree

    -   `NodeId` stores a node id with no restrictions

    -   `NodeIdForKind<Kind>` inherits from `NodeId` and stores the id of a node
        that must have the specified `NodeKind` "`Kind`". Note that this is not
        used directly, instead aliases `FooId` for
        `NodeIdForKind<NodeKind::Foo>` are defined for every node kind using
        [parse/node_kind.def](/toolchain/parse/node_kind.def) (using
        [the .def file idiom](idioms.md#def-files)).

    -   `NodeIdInCategory<Category>` inherits from `NodeId` and stores the id of
        a node that must overlap the specified `NodeCategory` "`Category`". Note
        that this is not typically used directly, instead this file defines
        aliases `AnyDeclId`, `AnyExprId`, ..., `AnyStatementId`.

    -   Similarly `NodeIdOneOf<T, U>` and `NodeIdNot<V>` inherit from `NodeId`
        and stores the id of a node restricted to either matching `T::Kind` or
        `U::Kind` or not matching `V::Kind`.
    -   In addition to the node id type definitions above, the struct
        `NodeForId<T>` is declared but not defined.

-   [parse/typed_nodes.h](/toolchain/parse/typed_nodes.h) defines a typed parse
    node struct type for each kind of parse node.

    -   Each one defines a static constant named `Kind` that is set using a call
        to `Define()` on the corresponding enumerant member of `NodeKind` from
        [parse/node_kind.h](/toolchain/parse/node_kind.h) (which is included by
        this file).
    -   The fields of these types specify the children of the parse node using
        the types from [parse/node_ids.h](/toolchain/parse/node_ids.h).

    -   The struct `NodeForId<T>` that is declared in
        [parse/node_ids.h](/toolchain/parse/node_ids.h) is defined in this file
        such that `NodeForId<FooId>::TypedNode` is the `Foo` typed parse node
        struct type.

    -   This file will fail to compile unless every kind of parse node kind
        defined in [parse/node_kind.def](/toolchain/parse/node_kind.def) has a
        corresponding struct type in this file.

-   [parse/node_kind.cpp](/toolchain/parse/node_kind.cpp) includes both
    [parse/node_kind.h](/toolchain/parse/node_kind.h) and
    [parse/typed_nodes.h](/toolchain/parse/typed_nodes.h)

    -   Uses the macro from [common/enum_base.h](/common/enum_base.h), the
        enumerants of `NodeKind` are _defined_ using the list of parse node
        kinds from [parse/node_kind.def](/toolchain/parse/node_kind.def) (using
        [the .def file idiom](idioms.md#def-files)).

    -   `NodeKind::definition()` is defined. It has a static table of
        `const NodeKind::Definition*` indexed by the enum value, populated by
        taking the address of the `Kind` member of each typed parse node struct
        type, using the list from
        [parse/node_kind.def](/toolchain/parse/node_kind.def).

    -   `NodeKind::category()` is defined using `NodeKind::definition()`.

    -   Tested assumption: the tables built in this file are indexed by the enum
        values. We rely on the fact that we get the parse node kinds in the same
        order by consistently using
        [parse/node_kind.def](/toolchain/parse/node_kind.def).

-   [parse/tree.h](/toolchain/parse/tree.h) includes
    [parse/node_ids.h](/toolchain/parse/node_ids.h). It does not depend on
    [parse/typed_nodes.h](/toolchain/parse/typed_nodes.h) to reduce compilation
    time in those files that don't use the typed parse node struct types.

    -   Defines `Tree::Extract`... functions that take a node id and return a
        typed parse node struct type from
        [parse/typed_nodes.h](/toolchain/parse/typed_nodes.h).

    -   Uses `HasKindMember<T>` to restrict calling `ExtractAs` except on typed
        nodes defined in [parse/typed_nodes.h](/toolchain/parse/typed_nodes.h).

    -   `Tree::Extract` uses `NodeForId<T>` to get the corresponding typed parse
        node struct type for a `FooId` type defined in
        [parse/node_ids.h](/toolchain/parse/node_ids.h).

        -   Note that this is done without a dependency on the typed parse node
            struct types by using the forward declaration of `NodeForId<T>` from
            [parse/node_ids.h](/toolchain/parse/node_ids.h).

    -   The `Tree::Extract`... functions ultimately call
        `Tree::TryExtractNodeFromChildren<T>`, which is a templated function
        only declared in this file. Its definition is in
        [parse/extract.cpp](/toolchain/parse/extract.cpp).

-   [parse/extract.cpp](/toolchain/parse/extract.cpp) includes
    [parse/tree.h](/toolchain/parse/tree.h) and
    [parse/typed_nodes.h](/toolchain/parse/typed_nodes.h)

    -   Defines struct `Extractable<T>` that defines how to extract a field of
        type `T` from a `Tree::SiblingIterator` pointing at the corresponding
        child node.

    -   `Extractable<T>` is defined for the node id types defined in
        [parse/node_ids.h](/toolchain/parse/node_ids.h).

    -   In addition, `Extractable<T>` is defined for standard types
        `std::optional<U>` and `llvm::SmallVector<V>`, to support optional and
        repeated children.

    -   Uses [struct reflection](idioms.md#struct-reflection) to support
        aggregate struct types containing extractable fields. This is used to
        support typed parse node struct types as well as struct fields that they
        contain.

    -   Uses `HasKindMember<Foo>` to detect accidental uses of a parse node type
        directly as fields of typed parse node struct types -- in those places
        `FooId` should be used instead.

    -   Defines `Tree::TryExtractNodeFromChildren<T>` and explicitly
        instantiates it for every typed parse node struct type defined in
        [parse/typed_nodes.h](/toolchain/parse/typed_nodes.h) using
        [parse/node_kind.def](/toolchain/parse/node_kind.def) (using
        [the .def file idiom](idioms.md#def-files)). By explicitly instantiating
        this function only in this file, we avoid redundant compilation work,
        which reduces build times, and allow us to keep all the extraction
        machinery as a private implementation detail of this file.

-   [parse/typed_nodes_test.cpp](/toolchain/parse/typed_nodes_test.cpp)
    validates that each typed parse node struct type has a static `Kind` member
    that defines the correct corresponding `NodeKind`, and that the `category()`
    function agrees between the `NodeKind` and `NodeKind::Definition`.

Note: this is broadly similar to
[SemIR typed instruction metadata implementation](#semir-typed-instruction-metadata-implementation).

## Check

Each parse node kind requires adding a `Handle<kind>` function in a
`check/handle_*.cpp` file.

### Adding a new SemIR instruction

If the resulting SemIR needs a new instruction:

-   Add a new kind to [sem_ir/inst_kind.def](/toolchain/sem_ir/inst_kind.def).

    -   Add a `CARBON_SEM_IR_INST_KIND(NewInstKindName)` line in alphabetical
        order

-   Add a new struct definition to
    [sem_ir/typed_insts.h](/toolchain/sem_ir/typed_insts.h), such as:

    ```cpp
    struct NewInstKindName {
        static constexpr auto Kind =
            // `Parse::SomeId` should be one of:
            // - A node ID from `parse/node_ids.h`,
            //   specifying the kind of parse nodes for this instruction.
            //   This could be a node kind from `parse/node_kind.def`
            //   suffixed by `Id`, or one of the `Any`...`Id` alias
            //   declarations that match multiple kinds of parse nodes.
            // - `Parse::NodeId` if it can be any kind of parse node.
            // - `Parse::InvalidNodeId` if no associated parse node.
            InstKind::NewInstKindName.Define<Parse::SomeId>(
                // The name used in textual IR:
                {.ir_name = "new_inst_kind_name"}
                // Other parameters have defaults.
            );

        // Optional: Include if this instruction produces a value used in
        // an expression.
        TypeId type_id;

        // 0-2 id fields, with types from sem_ir/ids.h or
        // sem_ir/builtin_kind.h. For example, fields would look like:
        NameId name_id;
        InstId value_id;
    };
    ```

    -   [`sem_ir/inst_kind.h`](/toolchain/sem_ir/inst_kind.h) documents the
        different options when defining a new instruction, as well as their
        defaults, see `InstKind::DefinitionInfo`.
    -   If an instruction always produces a type:

        -   Set `.is_type = InstIsType::Always` in its `Kind` definition.
        -   When constructing instructions of this kind, pass
            `SemIR::TypeType::TypeId` in as the value of the `type_id` field, as
            in:

            ```
            SemIR::InstId inst_id = AddInst<SemIR::NewInstKindName>(context,
                node_id, {.type_id = SemIR::TypeType::TypeId, ...});
            ```

    -   Although most instructions have distinct types represented by
        instructions like `ClassType`, we also have builtin types for cases
        where types don't need to be distinct per-entity. This is rare, but
        used, for example, when an expression implicitly uses a value as part of
        SemIR evaluation or as part of desugaring. We have builtin types for
        bound methods, namespaces, witnesses, among others. These are
        constructed as a special-case in
        [`File` construction](/toolchain/sem_ir/file.cpp). To get a type id for
        one of these builtin types, use something like
        `GetSingletonType(context,SemIR::WitnessType::TypeInstId)`, as in:

        ```
        SemIR::TypeId witness_type_id =
            GetSingletonType(context, SemIR::WitnessType::TypeInstId);
        SemIR::InstId inst_id = AddInst<SemIR::NewInstKindName>(
            context, node_id, {.type_id = witness_type_id, ...});
        ```

    -   Instructions without types may still be used as arguments to
        instructions.

Once those are added, a rebuild will give errors showing what needs to be
updated. The updates needed, can depend on whether the instruction produces a
type. Look to the comments on those functions for instructions on what is
needed.

Instructions won't be given a name unless
[`InstNamer::CollectNamesInBlock`](/toolchain/sem_ir/inst_namer.cpp) is called
on the `InstBlockId` they are a member of. As of this writing,
`InstNamer::CollectNamesInBlock` should only be called once per `InstBlockId`.
To accomplish this, there should be one instruction kind that "owns" the
instruction block, and will have a case in `InstNamer::CollectNamesInBlock` that
visits the `InstBlockId`. That instruction kind will typically use
`FormatTrailingBlock` in the `sem_ir/formatter.cpp` to list the instructions in
curly braces (`{`...`}`). Other instructions that reference that `InstBlockId`
will use the default rendering that has just the instruction names in parens
(`(`...`)`).

Adding an instruction will generally also require a handler in the Lower step.

Most new instructions will automatically be formatted reasonably by the SemIR
formatter. If not, then add a `FormatInst` overload to
[`sem_ir/formatter.cpp`](/toolchain/sem_ir/formatter.cpp). If only the arguments
need custom formatting, then a `FormatInstRhs` overload can be implemented
instead.

If the resulting SemIR needs a new built-in, add it to
[`File` construction](/toolchain/sem_ir/file.cpp).

### SemIR typed instruction metadata implementation

How does this work? As of
[#3310](https://github.com/carbon-language/carbon-lang/pull/3310):

![check](check.svg)

> TODO: Convert this chart to Mermaid.

-   [common/enum_base.h](/common/enum_base.h) defines the `EnumBase`
    [CRTP](idioms.md#crtp-or-curiously-recurring-template-pattern) class
    extending `Printable` from [common/ostream.h](/common/ostream.h), along with
    `CARBON_ENUM` macros for making enumerations

-   [sem_ir/inst_kind.h](/toolchain/sem_ir/inst_kind.h) includes
    [common/enum_base.h](/common/enum_base.h) and defines an enumeration
    `InstKind`, along with `TerminatorKind`.

    -   The `InstKind` enumeration is populated with the list of all instruction
        kinds using [sem_ir/inst_kind.def](/toolchain/sem_ir/inst_kind.def)
        (using [the .def file idiom](idioms.md#def-files)) _declared_ in this
        file using a macro from [common/enum_base.h](/common/enum_base.h)

    -   `InstKind` has a member type `InstKind::Definition` that extends
        `InstKind` and adds the `ir_name` string field, and a `TerminatorKind`
        field.

    -   `InstKind` has a method `Define` for creating a `InstKind::Definition`
        with the same enumerant value, plus values for the other fields.

-   Note that additional information is needed to define the `ir_name()`,
    `has_type()`, and `terminator_kind()` methods of `InstKind`. This
    information comes from the typed instruction definitions in
    [sem_ir/typed_insts.h](/toolchain/sem_ir/typed_insts.h).

-   [sem_ir/typed_insts.h](/toolchain/sem_ir/typed_insts.h) defines a typed
    instruction struct type for each kind of SemIR instruction, as described
    above.

    -   Each one defines a static constant named `Kind` that is set using a call
        to `Define()` on the corresponding enumerant member of `InstKind` from
        [sem_ir/inst_kind.h](/toolchain/sem_ir/inst_kind.h) (which is included
        by this file).

-   `HasParseNodeMember<TypedInst>` and `HasTypeIdMember<TypedInst>` at the
    bottom of [sem_ir/typed_insts.h](/toolchain/sem_ir/typed_insts.h) use
    [field detection](idioms.md#field-detection) to determine if `TypedInst` has
    a `Parse::Node parse_node` or a `TypeId type_id` field respectively.

    -   Note: both the type and name of these fields must match exactly.

-   [sem_ir/inst_kind.cpp](/toolchain/sem_ir/inst_kind.cpp) includes both
    [sem_ir/inst_kind.h](/toolchain/sem_ir/inst_kind.h) and
    [sem_ir/typed_insts.h](/toolchain/sem_ir/typed_insts.h)

    -   Uses the macro from [common/enum_base.h](/common/enum_base.h), the
        enumerants of `InstKind` are _defined_ using the list of instruction
        kinds from [sem_ir/inst_kind.def](/toolchain/sem_ir/inst_kind.def)
        (using [the .def file idiom](idioms.md#def-files))

    -   `InstKind::has_type()` is defined. It has a static table of indexed by
        the enum value, populated by applying `HasTypeIdMember` from
        [sem_ir/typed_insts.h](/toolchain/sem_ir/typed_insts.h) to every
        instruction kind by using the list from
        [sem_ir/inst_kind.def](/toolchain/sem_ir/inst_kind.def).
    -   `InstKind::definition()` is defined. It has a static table of
        `const InstKind::Definition*` indexed by the enum value, populated by
        taking the address of the `Kind` member of each `TypedInst`, using the
        list from [sem_ir/inst_kind.def](/toolchain/sem_ir/inst_kind.def).

    -   `InstKind::ir_name()` and `InstKind::terminator_kind()` are defined
        using `InstKind::definition()`.
    -   Tested assumption: the tables built in this file are indexed by the enum
        values. We rely on the fact that we get the instruction kinds in the
        same order by consistently using
        [sem_ir/inst_kind.def](/toolchain/sem_ir/inst_kind.def).

    -   This file will fail to compile unless every kind of SemIR instruction
        defined in [sem_ir/inst_kind.def](/toolchain/sem_ir/inst_kind.def) has a
        corresponding struct type in
        [sem_ir/typed_insts.h](/toolchain/sem_ir/typed_insts.h).

-   `TypedInstArgsInfo<TypedInst>` defined in
    [sem_ir/inst.h](/toolchain/sem_ir/inst.h) uses
    [struct reflection](idioms.md#struct-reflection) to determine the other
    fields from `TypedInst`. It skips the `parse_node` and `type_id` fields
    using `HasParseNodeMember<TypedInst>` and `HasTypeIdMember<TypedInst>`.

    -   Tested assumption: the `parse_node` and `type_id` are the first fields
        in `TypedInst`, and there are at most two more fields.

-   [sem_ir/inst.h](/toolchain/sem_ir/inst.h) defines templated conversions
    between `Inst` and each of the typed instruction structs:

    -   Uses `TypedInstArgsInfo<TypedInst>`, `HasParseNodeMember<TypedInst>`,
        and `HasTypeIdMember<TypedInst>`, and
        [local lambda](idioms.md#local-lambdas-to-reduce-duplicate-code).

    -   Defines a templated `ToRaw` function that converts the various id field
        types to an `int32_t`.
    -   Defines a templated `FromRaw<T>` function that converts an `int32_t` to
        `T` to perform the opposite conversion.
    -   Tested assumption: The `parse_node` field is first, when present, and
        the `type_id` is next, when present, in each `TypedInst` struct type.

-   The "tested assumptions" above are all tested by
    [sem_ir/typed_insts_test.cpp](/toolchain/sem_ir/typed_insts_test.cpp)

## Lower

Each SemIR instruction requires adding a `Handle<kind>` function in a
`lower/handle_*.cpp` file.

## Tests and debugging

### Running tests

Tests are run in bulk as `bazel test //toolchain/...`. Many tests are using the
file_test infrastructure; see
[testing/file_test/README.md](/testing/file_test/README.md) for information.

There are several supported ways to run Carbon on a given test file. For
example, with `toolchain/parse/testdata/basics/empty.carbon`:

-   `bazel test //toolchain/testing:file_test --test_arg=--file_tests=toolchain/parse/testdata/basics/empty.carbon`
    -   Executes an individual test.
-   `bazel run //toolchain -- compile --phase=parse --dump-parse-tree toolchain/parse/testdata/basics/empty.carbon`
    -   Explicitly runs `carbon` with the provided arguments.
-   `bazel-bin/toolchain/carbon compile --phase=parse --dump-parse-tree toolchain/parse/testdata/basics/empty.carbon`
    -   Similar to the previous command, but without using `bazel run`. This can
        be useful with a debugger or other tool that needs to directly run the
        binary.
-   `bazel run //toolchain -- -v compile --phase=check toolchain/check/testdata/basics/run.carbon`
    -   Runs using `-v` for verbose log output, and running through the `check`
        phase.

### Updating tests

The `toolchain/autoupdate_testdata.py` script can be used to update output. It
invokes the `file_test` autoupdate support. See
[testing/file_test/README.md](/testing/file_test/README.md) for file syntax.

#### Reviewing test deltas

Using `autoupdate_testdata.py` can be useful to produce deltas during the
development process because it allows `git status` and `git diff` to be used to
examine what changed.

### Test patterns

#### Minimal Core prelude

For most file tests in `check/`, very little of the `Core` package is used, and
the test is not intentionally testing the `Core` package itself. Compiling the
entire `Core` package adds a lot of noise during interactive debugging, which
can be avoided by using a minimal prelude.

To replace the production `Core` package with a minimal one, add the path to a
minimal `Core` package and `prelude` library to the file test with the
`INCLUDE-FILE` directive, and tell the toolchain to avoid loading the production
`Core` package by putting it in a `min_prelude` subdirectory. For example,
`check/testdata/facet_types/min_prelude/my_test.carbon` might contain:

```
// INCLUDE-FILE: toolchain/testing/testdata/min_prelude/convert.carbon
```

We have a set of minimal `Core` preludes for testing different compiler feature
areas in `//toolchain/testing/testdata/min_prelude/`. Each file begins with the
line `package Core library "prelude";` to make it provide a prelude.

#### SemIR dumps and ranges

In `check/` tests, we use ranges to help reduce SemIR output in golden files and
focus on the most interesting parts. This is done with special
`//@dump-sem-ir-begin` and `//@dump-sem-ir-end` markers; note these are not
valid comments because they have no space after `//`. As rules of thumb:

-   Put ranges around code relevant to the feature under test.
-   When testing similar code in multiple different ways, focus on what's
    expected to be unique.
-   Try to keep ranges small.
    -   We try to structure tests to use type checking to validate correctness;
        extra code for type checking might be possible to put outside a range.
    -   For example, when passing an argument to a function call, think about
        whether the function call needs to be included, or if a range can focus
        on the argument.
-   Don't put markers around most failures.
    -   A lot of failures will print similar SemIR; we're trying to balance
        review costs with the value of SemIR in golden files.

When a range is printed, referenced constants and import_refs will be
automatically included as well. A small amount of SemIR may include a number of
related instructions, such as an in-range instruction referencing an import_ref
referencing a constant referencing another constant.

SemIR dumps for files that don't have explicit ranges can be enabled through
either `//@include-in-dumps` (per-file) or
`// EXTRA-ARGS: --dump-sem-ir-ranges=if-present`. These should be rare, and are
worth comments when they're used.

##### Example uses

The range markers can be placed anywhere in code, and formatting will try to
print only the relevant SemIR. In the example below, the `Foo` entity will be
printed because it contains a range; its body will include `LogicUnderTest()`,
but `SetUp()` and `TearDown()` will be omitted.

```carbon
fn Foo() {
  SetUp();
  //@dump-sem-ir-begin
  LogicUnderTest();
  //@dump-sem-ir-end
  TearDown();
}
```

The ranges are token-based, and entity declarations with an overlapping range
should be included. Ranges can span entity declarations in order to have only
part of an entity included in output. In the example below, `Bar` and
`Bar::ImportantCall` will be printed, but `Bar::UnimportantCall` will be
omitted.

```
//@dump-sem-ir-begin
class Bar {
  fn ImportantCall[self: Self] { ... }
  //@dump-sem-ir-end

  fn UnimportantCall[self: Self]() { ... }
}
```

Out-of-line definitions can be used to print a nested entity without printing
the entity that contains it. In the example below, `Baz::Interesting` will be
printed because of the range in its body; `Baz` will be omitted because its
definition doesn't contain a range.

```
class Baz {
  fn Interesting();
}

fn Baz::Interesting() {
  //@dump-sem-ir-begin
  ...
  //@dump-sem-ir-end
}
```

Normally, files with no range markers will be excluded from output. For example,
we'll often exclude failing tests from output: passing SemIR is typically more
interesting, and failing tests only need to fail gracefully. However, sometimes
output can help check that an error is correctly propagated in SemIR.

### Debugging errors

See [Debugging tools and techniques](debugging.md).
