# Explorer `explorer` is an implementation of Carbon whose primary purpose is to act as a clear specification of the language. As an extension of that goal, it can also be used as a platform for prototyping and validating changes to the language. Consequently, it prioritizes straightforward, readable code over performance, diagnostic quality, and other conventional implementation priorities. In other words, its intended audience is people working on the design of Carbon, and it is not intended for real-world Carbon programming on any scale. See the [`toolchain`](/toolchain/) directory for a separate implementation that's focused on the needs of Carbon users. ## Overview `explorer` represents Carbon code using an abstract syntax tree (AST), which is defined in the [`ast`](ast/) directory. The [`syntax`](syntax/) directory contains lexer and parser, which define how the AST is generated from Carbon code. The [`interpreter`](interpreter/) directory contains the remainder of the implementation. `explorer` is an interpreter rather than a compiler, although it attempts to separate compile time from run time, since that separation is an important constraint on Carbon's design. ## Programming conventions The class hierarchies in `explorer` are built to support [LLVM-style RTTI](https://llvm.org/docs/HowToSetUpLLVMStyleRTTI.html), and define a `kind` accessor that returns an enum identifying the concrete type. `explorer` typically relies less on virtual dispatch, and more on using `kind` as the key of a `switch` and then down-casting in the individual cases. As a result, adding a new derived class to a hierarchy requires updating existing code to handle it. It is generally better to avoid defining `default` cases for RTTI switches, so that the compiler can help ensure the code is updated when a new type is added. `explorer` never uses plain pointer types directly. Instead, we use the [`Nonnull`](base/nonnull.h) alias for pointers that are not nullable, or `std::optional>` for pointers that are nullable. Many of the most commonly-used objects in `explorer` have lifetimes that are tied to the lifespan of the entire Carbon program. We manage the lifetimes of those objects by allocating them through an [`Arena`](base/arena.h) object, which can allocate objects of arbitrary types, and retains ownership of them. As of this writing, all of `explorer` uses a single `Arena` object, we may introduce multiple `Arena`s for different lifetime groups in the future. For simplicity, `explorer` generally treats all errors as fatal. Errors caused by bugs in the user-provided Carbon code should be reported with the error builders in [`error_builders.h`](base/error_builders.h). Errors caused by bugs in `explorer` itself should be reported with [`CHECK` or `FATAL`](../common/check.h). ### `Decompose` functions Many of explorer's data structures provide a `Decompose` method, which allows simple data types to be generically decomposed into their fields. The `Decompose` function for a type takes a function and calls it with the fields of that type. For example: ``` class MyType { public: MyType(Type1 arg1, Type2 arg2) : arg1_(arg1), arg2_(arg2) {} template auto Decompose(F f) const { return f(arg1_, arg2_); } private: Type1 arg1_; Type2 arg2_; }; ``` Where possible, a value equivalent to the original value should be created by passing the given arguments to the constructor of the type. For example, `my_value.Decompose([](auto ...args) { return MyType(args...); })` should recreate the original value. ## Example Programs (Regression Tests) The [`testdata/`](testdata/) subdirectory includes some example programs with expected output. These tests make use of [GoogleTest](https://github.com/google/googletest) with Bazel's `cc_test` rules. Tests have boilerplate at the top: ```carbon // Part of the Carbon Language project, under the Apache License v2.0 with LLVM // Exceptions. See /LICENSE for license information. // SPDX-License-Identifier: Apache-2.0 WITH LLVM-exception // // AUTOUPDATE // CHECK:STDOUT: result: 7 package ExplorerTest api; fn Main() -> i32 { return (1 + 2) + 4; } ``` To explain this boilerplate: - The standard copyright is expected. - The `AUTOUPDATE` line indicates that `CHECK` lines matching the output will be automatically inserted immediately below by the `./autoupdate_testdata.sh` script. - The `CHECK` lines indicate expected output. - Where a `CHECK` line contains text like `{{.*}}`, the double curly braces indicate a contained regular expression. - The `package` is required in all test files, per normal Carbon syntax rules. ### Useful commands - `./autoupdate_testdata.sh` -- Updates expected output. - This can be combined with `git diff` to see changes in output. - `bazel test ... --test_output=errors` -- Runs tests and prints any errors. - `bazel test //explorer:file_test.subset --test_arg=explorer/testdata/DIR/FILE.carbon` -- Runs a specific test. - `bazel run testdata/DIR/FILE.carbon.run` -- Runs explorer on the file. - `bazel run testdata/DIR/FILE.carbon.verbose` -- Runs explorer on the file with tracing enabled. ## Explorer's Trace Output Explorer's Trace Output refers to a detailed record of program phases and their internal processes a program goes through when executed using the `explorer`. It also records things like changes in memory and action stack that describes the state of the program. Tracing can be turned on using the `--trace_file=...` option. Explorer tests can be run with tracing enabled by using the `.verbose` test target. By default, `explorer` prints the state of the program and each step that is performed during execution for the file containing the main function when tracing is enabled. Tracing for different phases and file contexts can be selected using filtering that is explained below. Printing directly to the standard output using the `--trace_file` option is supported by passing `-` in place of a filepath (`--trace_file=-`). ### Filtering of the trace Trace output can be filtered based on either program phase or file context. Trace output can be filtered by selecting program phases and file contexts for which tracing should be enabled. The `-trace_phase=...` option is used to select program phases, while the `-trace_file_context=...` option is used to select file contexts. The following options can be passed as a comma-separated list to the `-trace_phase=...` option to select program phases: - `source_program`: Includes trace output for the source program phase. - `name_resolution`: Includes trace output for the name resolution phase. - `control_flow_resolution`: Includes trace output for the control flow resolution phase. - `type_checking`: Includes trace output for the type checking phase. - `unformed_variables_resolution`: Includes trace output for the unformed variables resolution phase. - `declarations`: Includes trace output for printing declarations. - `execution`: Includes trace output for program execution. - `timing`: Includes timing logs indicating the time taken by each phase. - `all`: Includes trace output for all phases. - By default, tracing is only enabled for the `execution` phase. The following options can be passed as a comma-separated list to the `-trace_file_context=...` option to select file contexts: - `main`: Includes trace output for the file containing the main function. - `prelude`: Includes trace output for the prelude. - `import`: Includes trace output for imports. - `include`: Includes trace output for all. - By default, tracing is only enabled for the `main` file context. **Note (for developers):** Two [RAII](https://en.cppreference.com/w/cpp/language/raii) classes `SetProgramPhase` and `SetFileContext` are provided for setting program phase and file context dynamically in the code. ### State of the Program The state of the program is represented by the memory and the stack. The memory is a mapping of addresses to values, and the stack is a list of actions. The state of the program is constantly changing as the program executes. The memory is updated as objects are allocated and deallocated, and the stack is updated as actions are performed. The state of the program can be used to track the progress of the program and to debug the program. #### Memory The memory is a mapping of addresses to values. The memory is used to represent both heap-allocated objects and also mutable parts of the procedure call stack. 1. **Memory Allocation** is printed as ``` ++# memory-alloc: # `value` uninitialized? ``` 2. **Read Memory** is printed as ``` <-- memory-read: # `value` ``` 3. **Write Memory** is printed as ``` --> memory-write: # `value` ``` 4. **Memory Deallocation** is printed as ``` --# memory-dealloc: # `value` ``` `allocation_index` is used for locating an object within the heap. `value` represents the object inside heap that is accessed using `allocation_index` #### Stack (Action Stack) The stack is list of actions, push and pop changes in the stack are printed in the following format ``` >[] stack-push: () <[] stack-pop: () ``` `action` is printed in the following format ``` ActionKind pos: `` results: [] scope: [] ``` 1. `ActionKind`: The `kind` of an action. Examples: ExpressionAction, DeclarationAction, etc. 2. `pos_count`: The position of execution (an integer) for this action. Each action can take multiple steps to complete. 3. `syntax`: The syntax for the part of the program to be executed, such as an expression or statement. 4. `collected_results`: The results from subexpressions of this part. 5. `scope`: The variables whose lifetimes are associated with this part of the program. The stack always begins with a function call to `Main`. In the special case of a function call, when the function call finishes, the result value appears at the end of the `results`. ### Step of Execution Each step of execution is printed in the following format: ->> step ActionKind pos: position syntax () ---> - The `syntax` is the part of the program being executed. - The `ActionKind` is the kind of action for which the step is executed. - The `position` says how far along `explorer` is in executing this action. - The `file-location` gives the filename and line number for the `syntax`. Each step of execution can push new actions on the stack, pop actions, increment the position number of an action, and add result values to an action. ### Trace Conventions (For Developers) #### Syntax and Code Formatting When including syntax or code within trace messages, it should be wrapped appropriately to maintain clarity and differentiation between code elements and regular text in the trace output. - For single-line code or syntax, use single backticks. - For multiline code blocks, use triple backticks (\`\`\`) to enclose the code. **Examples:** ```` For single line code: `let x: i32 = 0;` For multi line code: ``` fn Main() -> i32 { return 0; } ``` ```` #### Line Prefixes Each line of trace output starts with a prefix that indicates the nature of the information being presented. These prefixes are added using specific formatting methods in the `TraceStream` class. **Example usage:** ``` trace_stream->PrefixMethod() << ... ; ``` #### Formatting Utility Methods The `TraceStream` class also have utility methods for adding formatted headings and subheadings to the trace output. These methods help structure the trace information and provide visual separation for different sections. `Heading(...)` method prints the heading in following format: ``` * * * * * * * * * * Heading * * * * * * * * * * ------------------------------------------------ ``` `SubHeading(...)` method prints the heading in the following format: ``` - - - - - Sub Heading - - - - - -------------------------------- ```