Language design

Overview
Context and disclaimer
- Example code
Basic syntax
Types
Pattern matching
Type abstractions
Metaprogramming
Execution abstractions
Bidirectional interoperability with C/C++

Overview

This documentation describes the design of the Carbon language, and the rationale for that design. The goal is to provide sufficient coverage of the design to support the following audiences:

People who wish to determine whether Carbon would be the right choice to use for a project compared to other existing languages.
People working on the evolution of the Carbon language who wish to understanding the rationale and motivation for existing design decisions.
People working on a specification or implementation of the Carbon language who need a detailed understanding of the intended design.
People writing Carbon code who wish to understand why the language rules are the way they are.

For Carbon developers, documentation that is more suitable for learning the language will be made available separately.

Context and disclaimer

Eventually, this document hopes to provide a high-level overview of the design of the Carbon language. It should summarize the key points across the different aspects of the language design and link to more detailed and comprehensive design documents to expand on specific aspects of the design. That means it isn't and doesn't intend to be complete or stand on its own. Notably, it doesn't attempt to provide detailed and comprehensive justification for design decisions. Those should instead be provided by the dedicated and focused designs linked to from here. However, it should provide an overarching view of the design and a good basis for diving into specific details.

However, these are extremely early days for Carbon. Currently, this document tries to capture two things:

Initial musings about what might make sense as a basis for Carbon. These are largely informed by idle discussions between C++ and Clang developers over the years, and should not be given any particular weight.
A summary and snapshot of in-progress efforts to flesh out and motivate specific designs for parts of the language.

The utility of capturing these at this early stage is primarily to give everyone a reasonably consistent set of terminology and context as we begin fleshing out concrete (and well justified) designs for each part of the language. In some cases, it captures ideas that may be interesting to explore, but isn't meant to overly anchor on them. Any ideas here need to be fully explored and justified with a detailed analysis. The context of #1 (directly evolving C++, experience building Clang, and experience working on C++ codebases including Clang and LLVM themselves) is also important. It is both an important signal but also a bias.

Example code

In order to keep example code consistent, we are making choices that may change later. In particular, where $ is shown in examples, it is a placeholder: $ is a well-known bad symbol due to international keyboard layouts, and will be cleaned up during evolution.

Basic syntax

Code and comments

References: Source files and lexical conventions

TODO: References need to be evolved.

All source code is UTF-8 encoded text. For simplicity, no other encoding is supported.
Line comments look like // .... However, they are required to be the only non-whitespace on the line for readability.
Block comments look like //\{ ... //\}, with each marker on its own line. Nested block comments are supported using named regions. For example:
```
  live code
//\{
  commented code
//\{ nested block
  commented code in nested block
//\} nested block
//\}
  live code
```
Decimal, hexadecimal, and binary integer literals and decimal and hexadecimal floating-point literals are supported, with _ as a digit separator. For example, 42, 0b1011_1101 and 0x1.EEFp+5. Numeric literals are case-sensitive: 0x, 0b, e+, and p+ must be lowercase, whereas hexadecimal digits must be uppercase. A digit is required on both sides of a period.

Packages, libraries, and namespaces

References: Code and name organization

Files are grouped into libraries, which are in turn grouped into packages.
Libraries are the granularity of code reuse through imports.
Packages are the unit of distribution.

Name paths in Carbon always start with the package name. Additional namespaces may be specified as desired.

For example, this code declares a class Geometry.Shapes.Flat.Circle in a library Geometry/OneSide:

package Geometry library("OneSide") namespace Shapes;

namespace Flat;
class Flat.Circle { ... }

This type can be used from another package:

package ExampleUser;

import Geometry library("OneSide");

fn Foo(Geometry.Shapes.Flat.Circle circle) { ... }

Names and scopes

References: Lexical conventions

TODO: References need to be evolved.

Various constructs introduce a named entity in Carbon. These can be functions, types, variables, or other kinds of entities that we'll cover. A name in Carbon is formed from a word, which is a sequence of letters, numbers, and underscores, and which starts with a letter. We intend to follow Unicode's Annex 31 in selecting valid identifier characters, but a concrete set of valid characters has not been selected yet.

Naming conventions

References: Naming conventions

TODO: References need to be evolved.

Our current proposed naming convention are:

UpperCamelCase for names of compile-time resolved constants, whether they participate in the type system or not.
lower_snake_case for keywords and names of run-time resolved values.

As a matter of style and consistency, we will follow these conventions where possible and encourage convergence.

For example:

An integer that is a compile-time constant sufficient to use in the construction a compile-time array size, such as a template function parameter, might be named N.
A generic function parameter's value can't be used during type-checking, but might still be named N, since it will be a constant available to the compiler at code generation time.
Functions and most types will be in UpperCamelCase.
A type where only run-time type information queries are available would end up as lower_snake_case.
A keyword like import uses lower_snake_case.

Aliases

References: Aliases

TODO: References need to be evolved.

Carbon provides a facility to declare a new name as an alias for a value. This is a fully general facility because everything is a value in Carbon, including types.

For example:

alias MyInt = Int;

This creates an alias called MyInt for whatever Int resolves to. Code textually after this can refer to MyInt, and it will transparently refer to Int.

Name lookup

References: name lookup

TODO: References need to be evolved.

Unqualified name lookup will always find a file-local result, including aliases.

Name lookup for common types

References: Name lookup

TODO: References need to be evolved.

Common types that we expect to be used universally will be provided for every file, including Int and Bool. These will likely be defined in a special "prelude" package.

Expressions

References: Lexical conventions and operators

TODO: References need to be evolved.

Expressions describe some computed value. The simplest example would be a literal number like 42: an expression that computes the integer value 42.

Some common expressions in Carbon include:

Literals: 42, 3.1419, "Hello World!"
Operators:
- Increment and decrement: ++i, --j
  - These do not return any result.
- Unary negation: -x
- Arithmetic: 1 + 2, 3 - 4, 2 * 5, 6 / 3
- Bitwise: 2 & 3, 2 | 4, 3 ^ 1, ~7
- Bit shift: 1 << 3, 8 >> 1
- Comparison: 2 == 2, 3 != 4, 5 < 6, 7 > 6, 8 <= 8, 8 >= 8
- Logical: a and b, c or d
Parenthesized expressions: (7 + 8) * (3 - 1)

Functions

References: Functions

TODO: References need to be evolved.

Functions are the core unit of behavior. For example:

fn Sum(a: Int, b: Int) -> Int;

Breaking this apart:

fn is the keyword used to indicate a function.
Its name is Sum.
It accepts two Int parameters, a and b.
It returns an Int result.

You would call this function like Sum(1, 2).

Blocks and statements

References: Blocks and statements

TODO: References need to be evolved.

The body or definition of a function is provided by a block of code containing statements. The body of a function is also a new, nested scope inside the function's scope, meaning that parameter names are available.

Statements within a block are terminated by a semicolon. Each statement can, among other things, be an expression.

For example, here is a function definition using a block of statements, one of which is nested:

fn Foo() {
  Bar();
  {
    Baz();
  }
}

Variables

References: Variables

Blocks introduce nested scopes and can contain local variable declarations that work similarly to function parameters.

For example:

fn Foo() {
  var x: Int = 42;
}

Breaking this apart:

var is the keyword used to indicate a variable.
Its name is x.
Its type is Int.
It is initialized with the value 42.

Lifetime and move semantics

References: TODO

TODO: References need to be evolved.

Control flow

References: Control flow

Blocks of statements are generally executed sequentially. However, statements are the primary place where this flow of execution can be controlled.

`if` and `else`

References: Control flow

if and else provide conditional execution of statements. For example:

if (fruit.IsYellow()) {
  Print("Banana!");
} else if (fruit.IsOrange()) {
  Print("Orange!");
} else {
  Print("Vegetable!");
}

This code will:

Print Banana! if fruit.IsYellow() is True.
Print Orange! if fruit.IsYellow() is False and fruit.IsOrange() is True.
Print Vegetable! if both of the above return False.

Loops

`while`

References: Control flow

while statements loop for as long as the passed expression returns True. For example, this prints 0, 1, 2, then Done!:

var x: Int = 0;
while (x < 3) {
  Print(x);
  ++x;
}
Print("Done!");

`for`

References: Control flow

for statements support range-based looping, typically over containers. For example, this prints all names in names:

for (var name: String in names) {
  Print(name);
}

PrintNames() prints each String in the names List in iteration order.

`break`

References: Control flow

The break statement immediately ends a while or for loop. Execution will resume at the end of the loop's scope. For example, this processes steps until a manual step is hit (if no manual step is hit, all steps are processed):

for (var step: Step in steps) {
  if (step.IsManual()) {
    Print("Reached manual step!");
    break;
  }
  step.Process();
}

`continue`

References: Control flow

The continue statement immediately goes to the next loop of a while or for. In a while, execution continues with the while expression. For example, this prints all non-empty lines of a file, using continue to skip empty lines:

var f: File = OpenFile(path);
while (!f.EOF()) {
  var line: String = f.ReadLine();
  if (line.IsEmpty()) {
    continue;
  }
  Print(line);
}

`return`

References: Control flow

The return statement ends the flow of execution within a function, returning execution to the caller. If the function returns a value to the caller, that value is provided by an expression in the return statement. For example:

fn Sum(a: Int, b: Int) -> Int {
  return a + b;
}

Types

References: Primitive types, tuples, and classes

TODO: References need to be evolved.

Carbon's core types are broken down into three categories:

Primitive types
Composite types
User-defined types

The first two are intrinsic and directly built in the language. The last aspect of types allows for defining new types.

Expressions compute values in Carbon, and these values are always strongly typed much like in C++. However, an important difference from C++ is that types are themselves modeled as values; specifically, compile-time constant values. However, in simple cases this doesn't make much difference.

Primitive types

References: Primitive types

TODO: References need to be evolved.

These types are fundamental to the language as they aren't either formed from or modifying other types. They also have semantics that are defined from first principles rather than in terms of other operations. These will be made available through the prelude package.

Primitive types fall into the following categories:

Bool - a boolean type with two possible values: True and False.
Int and UInt - signed and unsigned 64-bit integer types.
- Standard sizes are available, both signed and unsigned, including Int8, Int16, Int32, Int128, and Int256.
- Overflow in either direction is an error.
Float64 - a floating point type with semantics based on IEEE-754.
- Standard sizes are available, including Float16, Float32, and Float128.
- BFloat16 is also provided.
String - a byte sequence treated as containing UTF-8 encoded text.
- StringView - a read-only reference to a byte sequence treated as containing UTF-8 encoded text.

Composite types

Tuples

References: Tuples

TODO: References need to be evolved.

The primary composite type involves simple aggregation of other types as a tuple. In formal type theory, tuples are product types.

An example use of tuples is:

fn DoubleBoth(x: Int, y: Int) -> (Int, Int) {
  return (2 * x, 2 * y);
}

Breaking this example apart:

The return type is a tuple of two Int types.
The expression uses tuple syntax to build a tuple of two Int values.

Both of these are expressions using the tuple syntax (<expression>, <expression>). The only difference is the type of the tuple expression: one is a tuple of types, the other a tuple of values.

Element access uses subscript syntax:

fn DoubleTuple(x: (Int, Int)) -> (Int, Int) {
  return (2 * x[0], 2 * x[1]);
}

Tuples also support multiple indices and slicing to restructure tuple elements:

// This reverses the tuple using multiple indices.
fn Reverse(x: (Int, Int, Int)) -> (Int, Int, Int) {
  return x[2, 1, 0];
}

// This slices the tuple by extracting elements [0, 2).
fn RemoveLast(x: (Int, Int, Int)) -> (Int, Int) {
  return x[0 .. 2];
}

Variants

TODO: Needs a feature design and a high level summary provided inline.

Pointers and references

TODO: Needs a feature design and a high level summary provided inline.

Arrays and slices

TODO: Needs a feature design and a high level summary provided inline.

User-defined types

Classes

References: Classes

Classes are a way for users to define their own data strutures or record types.

For example:

class Widget {
  var x: Int;
  var y: Int;
  var z: Int;

  var payload: String;
}

Breaking apart Widget:

Widget has three Int members: x, y, and z.
Widget has one String member: payload.
Given an instance dial, a member can be referenced with dial.paylod.

Assignment, copying

You may use a structural data class literal, also known as a struct literal, to assign or initialize a variable with a class type.

var sprocket: Widget = {.x = 3, .y = 4, .z = 5, .payload = "Sproing"};
sprocket = {.x = 2, .y = 1, .z = 0, .payload = "Bounce"};

You may also copy one struct into another of the same type.

var thingy: Widget = sprocket;
sprocket = thingy;

Member access

The data members of a variable with a class type may be accessed using dot . notation:

Assert(sprocket.x == thingy.x);

Methods

Class type definitions can include methods:

class Point {
  fn Distance[me: Self](x2: i32, y2: i32) -> f32 {
    var dx: i32 = x2 - me.x;
    var dy: i32 = y2 - me.y;
    return Math.Sqrt(dx * dx - dy * dy);
  }
  fn Offset[addr me: Self*](dx: i32, dy: i32);

  var x: i32;
  var y: i32;
}

fn Point.Offset[addr me: Self*](dx: i32, dy: i32) {
  me->x += dx;
  me->y += dy;
}

var origin: Point = {.x = 0, .y = 0};
Assert(Math.Abs(origin.Distance(3, 4) - 5.0) < 0.001);
origin.Offset(3, 4);
Assert(origin.Distance(3, 4) == 0.0);

This defines a Point class type with two integer data members x and y and two methods Distance and Offset:

Methods are defined as functions with a me parameter inside square brackets [...] before the regular explicit parameter list in parens (...).
Methods are called using using the member syntax, origin.Distance(...) and origin.Offset(...).
Distance computes and returns the distance to another point, without modifying the Point. This is signified using [me: Self] in the method declaration.
origin.Offset(...) does modify the value of origin. This is signified using [addr me: Self*] in the method declaration.
Methods may be declared lexically inline like Distance, or lexically out of line like Offset.

Allocation, construction, and destruction

TODO: Needs a feature design and a high level summary provided inline.

Moving

TODO: Needs a feature design and a high level summary provided inline.

Comparison

TODO: Needs a feature design and a high level summary provided inline.

Implicit and explicit conversion

TODO: Needs a feature design and a high level summary provided inline.

Inline type composition

TODO: Needs a feature design and a high level summary provided inline.

Unions

TODO: Needs a detailed design and a high level summary provided inline.

Pattern matching

References: Pattern matching

TODO: References need to be evolved.

The most prominent mechanism to manipulate and work with types in Carbon is pattern matching. This may seem like a deviation from C++, but in fact this is largely about building a clear, coherent model for a fundamental part of C++: overload resolution.

`match` control flow

References: Pattern matching

TODO: References need to be evolved.

match is a control flow similar to switch of C/C++ and mirrors similar constructs in other languages, such as Swift.

An example match is:

fn Bar() -> (Int, (Float, Float));

fn Foo() -> Float {
  match (Bar()...) {
    case (42, (x: Float, y: Float)) => {
      return x - y;
    }
    case (p: Int, (x: Float, _: Float)) if (p < 13) => {
      return p * x;
    }
    case (p: Int, _: auto) if (p > 3) => {
      return p * Pi;
    }
    default => {
      return Pi;
    }
  }
}

Breaking apart this match:

It accepts a value that will be inspected; in this case, the result of the call to Bar().
- It then will find the first case that matches this value, and execute that block.
- If none match, then it executes the default block.
Each case pattern contains a value pattern, such as (Int p, auto _), followed by an optional boolean predicate introduced by the if keyword.
- The value pattern must first match, and then the predicate must also evaluate to true for the overall case pattern to match.
- Using auto for a type will always match.

Value patterns may be composed of the following:

An expression, such as 42, whose value must be equal to match.
An identifier to bind the value, followed by a : and followed by a type, such as Int.
- The special identifier _ may be used to discard the value once matched.
A destructuring pattern containing a sequence of value patterns, such as (x: Float, y: Float), which match against tuples and tuple-like values by recursively matching on their elements.
An unwrapping pattern containing a nested value pattern which matches against a variant or variant-like value by unwrapping it.

Pattern matching in local variables

References: Pattern matching

TODO: References need to be evolved.

Value patterns may be used when declaring local variables to conveniently destructure them and do other type manipulations. However, the patterns must match at compile time, so a boolean predicate cannot be used directly.

An example use is:

fn Bar() -> (Int, (Float, Float));
fn Foo() -> Int {
  var (p: Int, _: auto) = Bar();
  return p;
}

To break this apart:

The Int returned by Bar() matches and is bound to p, then returned.
The (Float, Float) returned by Bar() matches and is discarded by _: auto.

Pattern matching as function overload resolution

References: Pattern matching

TODO: References need to be evolved. Needs a detailed design and a high level summary provided inline.

Type abstractions

Interfaces

TODO: Needs a feature design and a high level summary provided inline.

Generics

TODO: Needs a feature design and a high level summary provided inline.

Templates

References: Templates

TODO: References need to be evolved.

Carbon templates follow the same fundamental paradigm as C++ templates: they are instantiated when called, resulting in late type checking, duck typing, and lazy binding. Although generics are generally preferred, templates enable translation of code between C++ and Carbon, and address some cases where the type checking rigor of generics are problematic.

Types with template parameters

References: Templates

TODO: References need to be evolved.

User-defined types may have template parameters. The resulting type-function may be used to instantiate the parameterized definition with the provided arguments in order to produce a complete type. For example:

class Stack(T:$$ Type) {
  var storage: Array(T);

  fn Push(value: T);
  fn Pop() -> T;
}

Breaking apart the template use in Stack:

Stack is a paremeterized type accepting a type T.
T may be used within the definition of Stack anywhere a normal type would be used, and will only be type checked on instantiation.
var ... Array(T) instantiates a parameterized type Array when Stack is instantiated.

Functions with template parameters

References: Templates

TODO: References need to be evolved.

Both implicit and explicit function parameters in Carbon can be marked as template parameters. When called, the arguments to these parameters trigger instantiation of the function definition, fully type checking and resolving that definition after substituting in the provided (or computed if implicit) arguments. The runtime call then passes the remaining arguments to the resulting complete definition.

fn Convert[T:$$ Type](source: T, U:$$ Type) -> U {
  var converted: U = source;
  return converted;
}

fn Foo(i: Int) -> Float {
  // Instantiates with the `T` implicit argument set to `Int` and the `U`
  // explicit argument set to `Float`, then calls with the runtime value `i`.
  return Convert(i, Float);
}

Here we deduce one type parameter and explicitly pass another. It is not possible to explicitly pass a deduced type parameter; instead the call site should cast or convert the argument to control the deduction. In this particular example, the explicit type is passed after a runtime parameter. While this makes that type unavailable to the declaration of that runtime parameter, it still is a template parameter and available to use as a type in the remaining parts of the function declaration.

Overloading

References: Templates

TODO: References need to be evolved.

An important feature of templates in C++ is the ability to customize how they end up specialized for specific arguments. Because template parameters (whether as type parameters or function parameters) are pattern matched, we expect to leverage pattern matching techniques to provide "better match" definitions that are selected analogously to specializations in C++ templates. When expressed through pattern matching, this may enable things beyond just template parameter specialization, but that is an area that we want to explore cautiously.

TODO: lots more work to flesh this out needs to be done...

Metaprogramming

References: Metaprogramming

TODO: References need to be evolved. Needs a detailed design and a high level summary provided inline.

Carbon provides metaprogramming facilities that look similar to regular Carbon code. These are structured, and do not offer arbitrary inclusion or preprocessing of source text such as C/C++ does.

Execution abstractions

Carbon provides some higher-order abstractions of program execution, as well as the critical underpinnings of such abstractions.

Abstract machine and execution model

TODO: Needs a feature design and a high level summary provided inline.

Lambdas

TODO: Needs a feature design and a high level summary provided inline.

Co-routines

TODO: Needs a feature design and a high level summary provided inline.

Bidirectional interoperability with C/C++

References: Bidirectional interoperability with C/C++

TODO: References need to be evolved. Needs a detailed design and a high level summary provided inline.

README.md 29 KB Historia Czysty

Language design

Table of contents

Overview

Context and disclaimer

Example code

Basic syntax

Code and comments

Packages, libraries, and namespaces

Names and scopes

Naming conventions

Aliases

Name lookup

Name lookup for common types

Expressions

Functions

Blocks and statements

Variables

Lifetime and move semantics

Control flow

if and else

Loops

while

for

break

continue

return

Types

Primitive types

Composite types

Tuples

Variants

Pointers and references

Arrays and slices

User-defined types

Classes

Assignment, copying

Member access

Methods

Allocation, construction, and destruction

Moving

Comparison

Implicit and explicit conversion

Inline type composition

Unions

Pattern matching

match control flow

Pattern matching in local variables

Pattern matching as function overload resolution

Type abstractions

Interfaces

Generics

Templates

Types with template parameters

Functions with template parameters

Overloading

Metaprogramming

Execution abstractions

Abstract machine and execution model

Lambdas

Co-routines

Bidirectional interoperability with C/C++

README.md 29 KB

Historia Czysty

`if` and `else`

`while`

`for`

`break`

`continue`

`return`

`match` control flow